Glossary

What Is Vitamin B6? Vitamin B6 is not a single molecule but a group of so-called vitamers—consisting of pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine—which all share pyridoxal phosphate as their biologically active form. Pyridoxal phosphate is an essential cofactor in all animal organisms and must be obtained through the diet.The Hungarian scientist Paul György discovered the vitamin in 1934 during his research on the vitamin B complex and named it vitamin B6. As cofactors, vitamin B6 derivatives are essential for more than 150 enzymatic reactions in the human body and play a crucial role in amino acid metabolism as well as carbohydrate metabolism. Where Does Vitamin B6 Naturally Occur? Vitamin B6 deficiency is rare because the vitamin B6 vitamers—the group of pyridoxal phosphate derivatives—are found in a wide variety of foods. On average, people in Germany consume more vitamin B6 than is required to meet their nutritional needs. One reason for the generally good vitamin B6 status of the population is the consistently high biological availability of these derivatives, approximately 70%, which the body can readily convert into one another. Most of the body's vitamin B6 is stored bound in the liver and muscles, while only about 0.1% circulates in the bloodstream.Salmon, sardines, crab, sunflower seeds and other seeds, nuts such as walnuts, soybeans, oats, liver, and even potato chips are among the foods with the highest vitamin B6 content. As little as 31 g of rolled oats or 13 g of crayfish are sufficient to meet the recommended daily intake of vitamin B6. What Is the Primary Function of Vitamin B6 in the Body? After the inactive forms of vitamin B6—pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine, and their derivatives—have been absorbed, the body converts them in the liver and small intestine into the biologically active forms pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) and pyridoxamine phosphate (PMP). The coenzyme forms PLP and PMP participate in numerous enzymatic reactions involved in amino acid metabolism, homocysteine metabolism, and nucleotide synthesis. These coenzymes are essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system, immune system, and blood formation. Within the nervous system, for example, PLP is involved in both the synthesis and function of neurotransmitters. The conversion of L-DOPA into active dopamine depends on PLP, as does the function of serotonin receptors in the brain. What Are the Benefits of Vitamin B6 Supplementation? To date, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has authorized ten health claims for vitamin B6, reflecting a solid body of scientific evidence. For example, vitamin B6 contributes to the normal functioning of the immune system. Accordingly, a vitamin B6 deficiency may lead to impaired immune function. Whether vitamin B6 supplementation beyond normal nutritional requirements further enhances immune function is not covered by the approved EFSA health claims. Because vitamin B6 plays a crucial role in amino acid metabolism, the body's vitamin B6 requirements depend on protein turnover. The German Nutrition Society recommends a daily intake of 1.4–1.6 mg for men and 1.2 mg for women. On average, men consume approximately 1.8 mg and women approximately 1.5 mg of vitamin B6 per day—around 130% of the recommended intake. Groups at increased risk of vitamin B6 deficiency include people with chronic excessive alcohol consumption, underweight individuals, smokers, and older adults with low food intake. Individuals with kidney disease are also at increased risk. In addition, certain medications such as L-DOPA may increase vitamin B6 requirements. For these groups in particular, controlled supplementation with B vitamins may help prevent hypovitaminosis (vitamin deficiency). Current research is investigating the effects of vitamin B6 supplementation on obesity and diseases such as cancer, depression, and cardiovascular disease. In cancer research, an adequate dietary intake of vitamin B6 has shown benefits; however, these benefits have not been observed for vitamin B6 obtained from supplements. In fact, observational studies suggest that excessive vitamin B6 intake (hypervitaminosis B6) may even increase cancer risk. Similarly, research findings regarding dementia, autism, and depression have so far been rather disappointing. When combined with 2.25 g of leucine, supplementation with 30 mg of vitamin B6 increased fat loss in overweight participants by approximately 34 g per day. The supplement reduced calcium concentrations within fat cells, leading researchers to hypothesize that this inhibited calcium's positive influence on fat cell formation. Vitamin B6 has relatively low toxicity. However, hypervitaminosis has been associated with neurotoxic effects in both animal and human studies and has occurred after long-term supplementation over several months with daily doses ranging from 50 mg to 500 mg. Consequently, the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) has established 25 mg as the tolerable upper intake level (UL) and recommends a maximum content of 3.5 mg vitamin B6 in dietary supplements. Overall, there is still insufficient evidence regarding the safety of daily vitamin B6 intakes between 10 mg and 200 mg. References Further information and scientific studies on the active ingredient vitamin B6 can be found here. The Intestine Plays a Substantial Role in Human Vitamin B6 Metabolism: A Caco-2 Cell Modelwww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23342087 Effects of Pyridoxine on Dreaming: A Preliminary Studywww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11883552 Effects of a Leucine- and Pyridoxine-Containing Nutraceutical on Fat Oxidation, and Oxidative and Inflammatory Stress in Overweight and Obese Subjectswww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22822451 Adipogenic Effect of Calcium-Sensing Receptor Activationwww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24005534 The Calcium-Sensing Receptor Promotes Adipocyte Differentiation and Adipogenesis Through the PPARγ Pathwaywww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22038624

What Is Alpha-Ketoglutarate? Alpha-ketoglutarate is also referred to as alpha-ketoglutaric acid and is often written using the Greek prefix as α-ketoglutarate. In scientific literature, alpha-ketoglutarate is described as both a tumor-suppressor molecule and a longevity molecule that can be supplied externally. It is believed to have the potential to turn humanity's dream of a longer life and improved health into reality. Among its better-established functions are its versatile roles in energy metabolism, protein metabolism, and detoxification. Calcium and arginine salts of alpha-ketoglutarate are commercially available. Overall, alpha-ketoglutarate is considered safe and well tolerated. Where Does Alpha-Ketoglutarate Naturally Occur? Alpha-ketoglutarate is an endogenous substance. It is produced exclusively by the body and does not occur naturally in food. In principle, alpha-ketoglutarate is present in every cell of the body. Within the mitochondria, the body produces up to 2 kilograms of alpha-ketoglutarate each day, which is immediately utilized in the citric acid cycle. In general, cellular alpha-ketoglutarate levels increase after exercise and during fasting, while they decline with age.Alpha-ketoglutarate and ammonium combine to form glutamate. Both this synthesis and the reverse reaction are catalyzed by the enzyme glutamate dehydrogenase. The body expresses the gene for this enzyme particularly in the brain, the retina of the eye, and the testes. Consequently, the alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent reaction plays an especially important role in these tissues. What Is the Primary Function of Alpha-Ketoglutarate in the Body? Its central role lies within the citric acid cycle. This cycle works together with the electron transport chain to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the universal biological energy carrier. Alpha-ketoglutarate is an intermediate of energy metabolism, whose purpose is to generate ATP from fatty acids, glucose, or amino acids. Within nitrogen metabolism, alpha-ketoglutarate serves as a building block for amino acids. Together with ammonium, it first forms glutamate, from which the body synthesizes additional non-essential amino acids such as glutamine. Glutamate also plays a crucial role in the synthesis of glutathione, one of the body's most important antioxidants, present in every cell. Alpha-ketoglutarate itself also acts as a free-radical scavenger and antioxidant, with antioxidant activity reported to be even stronger than that of vitamin C. Particularly during illness and following injuries, the body's demand for glutamine exceeds its production capacity. Glutamine is not only essential for the division of white blood cells and the phagocytic activity of immune cells, but the body's requirements also increase significantly after surgery, trauma, and burns. Alpha-ketoglutarate therefore functions as a regulator of nitrogen metabolism. This makes it one of the key molecules involved in the detoxification of ammonium. During amino acid breakdown, the body produces ammonium, which accumulates whenever amino acid metabolism is impaired. This is undesirable because ammonium is toxic to cells and places considerable stress on both the body and individual cells. Alpha-ketoglutarate regulates ammonium by binding and temporarily fixing it to form amino acids or releasing it when required. In the subsequent step, ammonium is transported to the liver and enters the urea cycle. Alpha-ketoglutarate therefore helps detoxify ammonium by converting it into urea, allowing the body to eliminate it safely through the urine. What Are the Benefits of Alpha-Ketoglutarate Supplementation? Alpha-ketoglutarate supplementation has demonstrated benefits in cases of injury, illness, and surgery. It contributes to ATP synthesis, supports oxygen supply, and helps control oxidative stress. Through its role in energy metabolism, it offers the potential to improve recovery. Studies have shown that it can accelerate healing after illness and surgical procedures. It also supports anti-catabolic metabolic pathways—particularly amino acid synthesis—when the body enters a strongly catabolic state. As an important precursor of glutamine, it is essential for proper immune function, including the production of cytokines. Alpha-ketoglutarate is also being intensively studied for its potential role in cancer therapy. Many cancers alter the body's nitrogen metabolism. Since alpha-ketoglutarate is a central regulator of nitrogen metabolism, it may help compensate for disturbances in nitrogen balance. Researchers are particularly interested in alpha-ketoglutarate as an endogenous tumor-suppressor metabolite, not least because it inhibited the kinase "target of rapamycin" (TOR) in experiments involving nematodes. In studies using nematodes and other animal models such as mice, researchers demonstrated life-extending effects of alpha-ketoglutarate. These studies found an association between fasting or calorie restriction, increased tissue levels of alpha-ketoglutarate, and prolonged lifespan. In mice, the calcium salt of alpha-ketoglutarate (Ca-AKG) improved both lifespan and healthspan, most likely because it reduced chronic inflammation and decreased frailty. Alpha-ketoglutarate is commercially available as a dietary supplement in combination with either calcium or arginine. The calcium salt form (Ca-AKG) improves the molecule's chemical stability and solubility while also providing calcium, an important mineral for bone health. Similar principles apply to arginine alpha-ketoglutarate. Due to arginine's role in nitric oxide synthesis, this combination is believed to improve oxygen delivery to tissues and enhance physical performance. Ca-AKG has been used in several landmark studies investigating longevity and the reduction of chronic inflammation. References Further information and scientific studies on the active ingredient alpha-ketoglutarate can be found here. The BCAA-BCKA Cycle: Its Relationship to Alanine and Glutamine Synthesis and Protein Balancewww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11165898 The Metabolite Alpha-Ketoglutarate Extends Lifespan by Inhibiting ATP Synthase and TORwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4263271 Alpha-Ketoglutarate, an Endogenous Metabolite, Extends Lifespan and Compresses Morbidity in Aging Micewww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32877690 Nitrogen Metabolism in Cancer and Immunitywww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7386658 Intraduodenal Infusion of Alpha-Ketoglutarate Decreases Whole-Body Energy Expenditure in Growing Pigswww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16376464 Glutamine and Alpha-Ketoglutarate Prevent the Decrease in Muscle Free Glutamine Concentration and Influence Protein Synthesis After Total Hip Replacementwww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7666798 The Metabolite α-Ketoglutarate Extends Lifespan by Inhibiting ATP Synthase and TORwww.nature.com/articles/nature13264 Effects of 7 Days of Arginine Alpha-Ketoglutarate Supplementation on Blood Flow, Plasma L-Arginine, Nitric Oxide Metabolites, and Asymmetric Dimethylarginine After Resistance Exercisewww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21813912

What Is Glycine? Glycine is the simplest proteinogenic (protein-forming) amino acid found in nature. It is considered conditionally non-essential because the human body is able to synthesize it, although endogenous production alone is insufficient to meet the body's metabolic requirements for glycine.The name glycine is derived from the Greek word for "glue" because it occurs in large amounts in collagen, the structural protein that holds our connective tissue together. However, this small and simple amino acid does much more than provide structural integrity. It plays an essential role in numerous metabolic processes, serving as a building block for important biomolecules and neurotransmitters. Where Does Glycine Naturally Occur? Glycine is considered conditionally non-essential because, under normal circumstances, the body is capable of synthesizing significant amounts of this amino acid. However, there are situations in which glycine synthesis decreases or the body's demand increases, such as during pregnancy.Calculations indicate that the body synthesizes approximately 3 g of glycine per day but requires around 15 g daily for the production of other biomolecules. Based on these figures, researchers assume that an additional 12 g of glycine from dietary sources may be necessary.Glycine is the principal component of collagen, which forms the basic raw material for the production of gelatin. Since all multicellular animals contain collagen, meat and fish proteins contain approximately 4–5% glycine. Walnuts, pumpkin seeds, and soybeans are also excellent dietary sources, each containing more than 5% glycine. In silk fibroin, the structural protein of silk, glycine accounts for more than 40% of all amino acids. What Is the Primary Function of Glycine in the Body? In metabolism, glycine serves as a building block for components of genetic material, heme (the iron-containing pigment of red blood cells), creatine (the energy carrier of skeletal muscle), glutathione (the body's major endogenous antioxidant), and collagen. Because of its exceptional tensile strength, collagen provides stability and structure to bones, tendons, ligaments, and skin. To produce collagen, the body links glycine alternately with the amino acids proline and hydroxyproline into peptide chains containing up to 3,000 amino acids, which are subsequently assembled into collagen fibers. Glycine is small enough to fit into the tight turns of these chains, making it essential for the dense packing of the structure and its remarkable tensile strength. Collagen accounts for more than 30% of all proteins in the human body. In the brain and spinal cord, glycine functions as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, meaning that it suppresses the transmission of nerve signals. In doing so, glycine reduces the activity of specific muscle cells. The toxin produced by the bacterium causing tetanus blocks glycine-mediated neurotransmission and is therefore responsible for the life-threatening muscle spasms characteristic of tetanus. Benefits Building block for essential biomolecules and neurotransmitters May improve sleep quality Has been shown in studies to increase glutathione levels What Are the Benefits of Glycine Supplementation? Because the body's own synthesis of glycine may become impaired with advancing age or certain health conditions, and because dietary intake is not always sufficient, glycine has been extensively investigated as a dietary supplement. Although the body synthesizes approximately 3 g of glycine per day, it requires at least three times that amount solely for the daily production of collagen. Since glycine is a major building block of collagen, it is frequently used as a supplement to support the health of joints, tendons, and bones, as well as in anti-aging products intended to promote younger-looking skin. Indeed, clinical studies have demonstrated that supplementation with 10 g of glycine increases serum glycine concentrations to levels consistent with the theoretical requirements for a threefold increase in collagen synthesis. A glycine deficiency has been associated with reduced glutathione synthesis. Consequently, inadequate glycine availability may expose the body to increased oxidative stress and contribute to premature biological aging. Experimental studies have shown that glycine supplementation can increase glutathione levels. Several clinical studies have demonstrated improvements in sleep quality and cognitive performance following glycine supplementation. These effects are believed to result from glycine's function as a neurotransmitter acting on specific receptors within the brain. Positive effects were observed with single doses of 3–5 g of glycine taken before bedtime. Glycine is approved as a food additive within the European Union. No maximum intake level has been established because no adverse health effects have been identified to date. In clinical studies, doses of up to 0.8 g per kilogram of body weight (64 g for an individual weighing 80 kg) were well tolerated. Nevertheless, consuming large amounts of glycine through supplementation may cause gastrointestinal side effects such as abdominal pain and nausea. For supplementation, single doses of 3–5 g are therefore generally recommended. References Further information and scientific studies on the active ingredient glycine can be found here. Decreased Collagen Production in Chronologically Aged Skinwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1606623 High Glycine Concentration Increases Collagen Synthesis by Articular Chondrocytes In Vitro: Acute Glycine Deficiency Could Be an Important Cause of Osteoarthritiswww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6153947 Assessment of Acute Adverse Events of High-Dose Glycine Ingestion in Human Volunteerswww.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seikatsueisei/50/1/50_1_27/_article Dietary Glycine Is Rate-Limiting for Glutathione Synthesis and May Have Broad Potential for Health Protectionwww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29559876 Glycine Transporters and Synaptic Functionwww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18798526 High-Dose Glycine Treatment of Refractory Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Body Dysmorphic Disorder Over a 5-Year Periodwww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20182547 Urinary Excretion of 5-L-Oxoproline (Pyroglutamic Acid) Is Increased During Recovery from Severe Childhood Malnutrition and Responds to Supplemental Glycinewww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8914954

What Is Glutamine? Glutamine is one of the 21 proteinogenic amino acids that the body uses to build proteins. It contains a chiral center, which means it exists as L-glutamine and D-glutamine. However, only L-glutamine occurs in proteins. Therefore, when we refer to glutamine, we mean L-glutamine. L-glutamine is considered a non-essential amino acid because the human body can synthesize it when needed.Glutamine accounts for approximately 20% of all amino acids circulating in the bloodstream, making it one of the most abundant amino acids in the body. It is a central metabolite in the metabolism of all living organisms. Glutamine supplementation is particularly popular among athletes, as it is believed to promote muscle growth and support the immune system. Where Does Glutamine Naturally Occur? Consistent with glutamine's central role in the metabolism of most living organisms, it is naturally present in relatively high amounts in many foods. Soybeans, cheese, peanuts, spelt, and mung beans each contain more than 4 g of glutamine per 100 g. Within the human body, glutamine is particularly abundant in skeletal muscle tissue and muscle cells, where it can also be synthesized directly. What Is the Primary Function of Glutamine in the Body? The amino acid glutamine serves as both a building block and a substrate for proteins, immune cells, cells of the gastrointestinal tract, and liver cells. In addition, glutamine is a universal donor of amino groups in metabolism. Chains consisting of several glutamine molecules are components of important transcription factors, including FOXP2. During injuries, burns, surgical procedures, and other situations associated with severe physiological stress, glutamine concentrations in muscle cells decrease by up to 50%. Researchers have observed this effect regardless of nutritional intake. This led to the assumption that glutamine is a conditionally non-essential amino acid that becomes indispensable during periods of illness, injury, and advanced age. One of the earliest discoveries regarding muscle cell physiology was that glutamine increases the volume of muscle cells during physical stress by promoting water retention. This is considered an anabolic signal that supports glycogen storage and protein synthesis. Glutamine is also indispensable for the immune system. Various immune cells use glutamine as a primary nutrient and, in fact, consume even more glutamine than they do glucose, the body's primary cellular fuel. What Are the Benefits of Glutamine Supplementation? To date, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has not approved any health claims for glutamine as a dietary supplement. At the time of its assessment, the available clinical evidence was considered too inconsistent. However, this evaluation was published several years ago, and additional research on glutamine supplementation has since become available. Researchers investigated the hypothesis that glutamine supplementation may prevent the decline of intracellular glutamine concentrations during periods of increased inflammation, thereby improving health outcomes. A small number of studies reported benefits for patients receiving glutamine supplementation. In particular, patients suffering from severe inflammatory conditions experienced lower infection rates and shorter hospital stays. However, a six-month clinical trial involving approximately 1,200 critically ill patients questioned whether glutamine supplementation is beneficial in every clinical situation. In that study, glutamine supplementation was associated with a significantly increased mortality rate. Researchers therefore continue to debate whether declining glutamine concentrations represent a true deficiency or rather an adaptive physiological response. Another argument against glutamine supplementation is that many types of cancer depend on glutamine. Cancer cells generally consume considerably more glutamine than healthy cells. Consequently, laboratory culture media used for growing tumor cells typically contain high concentrations of glutamine. With regard to athletic performance, clinical studies have shown that glutamine supplementation may reduce fatigue, enhance glycogen synthesis and recovery, decrease post-exercise cortisol release, and reduce the accumulation of toxic metabolic by-products such as ammonia. However, particularly concerning athletic performance and muscle growth, the available scientific evidence remains inconsistent. Several studies have demonstrated positive effects of glutamine supplementation in older adults, including improvements in leg muscle performance and other aspects of physical function. Overall, glutamine is considered an interesting longevity molecule because researchers suspect that cellular glutamine availability may become insufficient with advancing age. Many clinical studies have used well-tolerated daily doses ranging from 5 g to 15 g of glutamine. Nevertheless, conflicting findings also indicate that the optimal dosage still requires further investigation. One scientific review concluded that high daily intakes of approximately 40 g of glutamine may impair amino acid metabolism or interfere with the body's own glutamine synthesis. In contrast, clinical guidelines in other settings recommend administering 0.3–0.5 g of glutamine per kilogram of body weight—which corresponds to approximately 40 g per day for an individual weighing 80 kg. References Further information and scientific studies on the active ingredient glutamine can be found here. Glutamine: Metabolism and Immune Function, Supplementation and Clinical Translationwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6266414 Have We Enough Glutamine and How Does It Work? A Clinician's Viewwww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22212454 Low Glutamine Levels During Critical Illness — Adaptive or Maladaptive?www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMe1302301 Effect of Glutamine Supplementation on Inflammatory Markers in Critically Ill Patients Supported with Enteral or Parenteral Feedingwww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34213769 Effect of Glutamine Supplementation Combined with Resistance Training in Young Adultswww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11822473 Assessment of the Safety of Glutamine and Other Amino Acidswww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11533313

What Is Fish Oil? Fish oil contains long-chain unsaturated fatty acids—known as omega-3 fatty acids—that are essential for human health. In everyday language, fish oil or omega-3 fish oil is often used synonymously with the two omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). DHA and EPA are important for regulating inflammatory processes, supporting brain function, and influencing various metabolic signaling pathways. Fish oil is one of the most popular dietary supplements on the market. Where Does Fish Oil Naturally Occur? Fish oil is obtained from oily fish species. DHA and EPA are found primarily in fish and, in very small amounts, in other animal-derived foods. However, the original source of these two marine omega-3 fatty acids is microscopic algae, commonly referred to as microalgae, which consist of countless microscopic single-celled organisms, unlike visible macroalgae. It is only through the food chain that omega-3 fatty acids accumulate in fish. Commercial omega-3 algae oil is commonly produced using species of the microalgae genus Schizochytrium. To meet the body's DHA and EPA requirements, humans can convert the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) into EPA and DHA. ALA is found exclusively in plant-based foods, particularly rapeseed oil, walnuts, and flaxseed. However, the efficiency of this conversion depends on various environmental and physiological factors such as age, stress, illness, and diet. Depending on the circumstances, conversion rates range from approximately 0.1% to 10%. Because the same enzyme is involved both in converting the omega-3 fatty acid ALA and in several metabolic steps involving omega-6 fatty acids, ALA and omega-6 fatty acids compete for this enzyme. When the diet contains a substantial excess of omega-6 fatty acids, the conversion of ALA into EPA and DHA approaches zero. To ensure sufficient endogenous production of EPA and DHA from ALA, researchers recommend maintaining an omega-6 to omega-3 ratio in the diet of no more than 4–6:1. What Is the Primary Function of Fish Oil in the Body? Due to their chemical structure (spatial configuration) with multiple double bonds, omega-3 fatty acids are highly susceptible to oxidation. However, this structural flexibility also makes these molecules particularly valuable for the human body. DHA contains six double bonds, making it the most flexible of the major omega-3 fatty acids, and it is an integral component of nerve cell membranes. DHA accounts for nearly all omega-3 fatty acids found in the brain and the optic nerve. If the mother develops a DHA deficiency during pregnancy, there is a risk of developmental abnormalities, particularly in these tissues. EPA serves as the precursor for the synthesis of DHA and eicosanoids, which are important signaling molecules. Eicosanoids regulate blood pressure, heart rate, the entire cardiovascular system, inflammatory responses, and pain perception. A deficiency of DHA and EPA is associated with an increased risk of developmental disorders in unborn children. However, no universally accepted threshold values are currently known below which the functions of the nervous system or immune system become impaired. Benefits May help maintain normal heart function May help prevent cardiovascular disease What Are the Benefits of Fish Oil Supplementation? Fish oil is one of the most widely used dietary supplements because numerous studies have demonstrated beneficial effects of omega-3 supplementation. Based on robust evidence in several areas of application, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has approved a number of health claims. Among these is the finding that a daily intake of 2–4 g of DHA and EPA helps lower blood pressure and triglyceride levels. A daily intake of 250 mg of omega-3 fatty acids is considered sufficient to help maintain normal heart function and contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular disease. An EFSA expert panel has concluded that a combined daily intake of up to 5 g of DHA and EPA is safe. Consistent with the biological effects of omega-3 fatty acids, numerous research areas have produced further promising findings regarding fish oil supplementation. Meta-analyses have reported positive effects of fish oil on mood, muscle recovery and inflammatory markers in athletes, insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic disorders, and the rate of age-related cognitive decline. DHA and EPA often exert different, yet complementary, physiological effects. References Further information and scientific studies on the active ingredient fish oil can be found here. EFSA Assesses the Safety of Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acidswww.efsa.europa.eu/de/press/news/120727 Dietary Patterns and Depression Risk: A Meta-analysiswww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28431261 Are There Benefits from the Use of Fish Oil Supplements in Athletes? A Systematic Reviewwww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32383739 How Does High-DHA Fish Oil Affect Health? A Systematic Review of the Evidencewww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29494205 Omega-3 Fatty Acidswww.ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional Efficacy of Omega-3 PUFAs in Depression: A Meta-analysiswww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31383846 Watermelon Extract Supplementation Reduces Ankle Blood Pressure and Carotid Augmentation Index in Obese Adults with Prehypertension or Hypertensionwww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22402472

What Is D-Ribose? Ribose is a sugar that occurs naturally in the chemical configuration known as D-ribose. Its mirror-image isomer, L-ribose, plays only a minor role in nature. D-ribose is essential to life because it is a structural component of nucleic acids, which carry genetic information. It is also part of nucleotides that play central roles in cellular energy transfer. Where Does D-Ribose Occur Naturally? The body can synthesize ribose from monosaccharides such as galactose, fructose and glucose. It therefore occurs naturally in all cells. Ribose is also present in many foods, although the amount that remains available after processing and digestion is difficult to determine. In 2019, researchers reported the detection of ribose in a meteorite, adding to the scientific discussion about whether organic molecules from space contributed to the formation of biomolecules such as RNA on early Earth. What Is D-Ribose’s Primary Function in the Body? Ribose forms part of the backbone of genetic material. In ribonucleic acid, or RNA, D-ribose units form the sugar component of the molecular backbone. Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, contains deoxyribose, a closely related sugar with one fewer oxygen atom.The body uses ribose to build several important molecules involved in energy metabolism, including ATP and the nucleotide components of NADH and FADH2. Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, contains ribose together with adenine and three phosphate groups and acts as the principal immediately usable energy carrier in cells. Ribose is also part of cyclic adenosine monophosphate, or cAMP, a signaling molecule that regulates numerous metabolic processes. What Are the Potential Benefits of D-Ribose Supplementation? Because ribose is a structural component of ATP, researchers have studied whether supplemental D-ribose can influence the replenishment of cellular energy stores. It has been investigated particularly in situations where illness or intense physical exertion may reduce ATP availability.Experimental studies suggest that providing ribose can increase the synthesis of ribose-containing molecules. Small clinical studies have examined doses around 15 g per day in people with heart failure or coronary artery disease and reported possible improvements in exercise-related cardiovascular performance. These studies were small and do not establish a general treatment benefit.In one experiment involving healthy men who performed intense cycling twice daily, a very high total amount of ribose supported the recovery of muscle ATP more effectively than other simple sugars. The amount used in that experiment was far above ordinary supplemental intake. EFSA has assessed the safety of supplemental D-ribose and identified concerns at higher doses; the article cites an intake of 36 mg per kilogram of body weight, equivalent to approximately 2.9 g per day for a person weighing 80 kilograms.From a biochemical perspective, D-ribose can accelerate ATP synthesis under certain conditions, particularly when energy stores are depleted. However, it remains unclear how meaningful supplementation is for athletic performance or recovery in healthy people. Its use in heart disease, fibromyalgia and fatigue-related conditions also requires further research. EFSA has concluded that the safety evidence for supplemental D-ribose is limited, so intake should remain conservative and should be discussed with a qualified professional when medical conditions are present. Sources Further information and scientific studies on D-ribose can be found below. Benefit of ribose in a patient with fibromyalgiawww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15537568 D-ribose aids advanced ischemic heart failure patientswww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18674831 D-Ribose improves diastolic function and quality of life in congestive heart failure patients: a prospective feasibility studywww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14607200 Effect of ribose supplementation on resynthesis of adenine nucleotides after intense intermittent training in humanswww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14660478 Purine salvage to adenine nucleotides in different skeletal muscle fiber typeswww.pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11408435